The 1960s

Task

Research Pop Art

In this task I am researching American Pop Art, focusing on Roy Litchenstein and Andy Warhol in particular. To me, these are two of the most well-known artists in American Pop Art and so I wanted to learn about them in more depth.

Pop culture became closely interwined with lifestyle in the 60s, especially in the USA. Consumerism was just reaching its first peak after the Second World War and artists reacted to this with Pop Art- employing aspects of mass culture such as advertising and comic book art and mundane everyday objects (think Warhol's soup cans). Because of the way artists would use found objects and images, the movement was similar to Dada art, and although the concepts behind each were different, there were similarities in the attitudes of the artists.

"What was it which made Dada so inspiring for the development of Pop Art? Dada combined advertising images and texts, slogans, revolutionary pamphlets, folk art and popular culture in collages, pictures with texts, photos, films... The unorthodox, and in some ways surreal, manner in which it combined these, integrating both the rational ordering principle and elements of chance, influenced Pop Art and the Happening towards the end of the fifties." 1

After struggling to secure a one-man show in his name, Andy Warhol finally managed to get an exhibition in place after painting a series of dollar bills which Eleanor Ward challenged him to create.

"As Warhol remembers it, the three of them met and, after De had asked her point-blank if she was going to take Warhol on, "She took out her wallet and looked through the bill compartment. Then she held up a two dollar bill and said, 'Andy, if you paint me this, I'll give you a show.'" 2

The reaction to this first show of his was immense, and the Manhattan art world loved it. Andy Warhol was famous.

Figure 1, Two Dollar Bills (Front and Rear), Andy Warhol, 1962

Following this came his images of Monroe and Elvis- the constantly repeated images of their faces on garish backgrounds in block colours dehumanised them, and reveal the inauthenticity of their characters. Warhol has transformed them into a series of meaningless pictures, transfering them onto the canvas in an almost careless way, making her marketable persona something very alien and unpredictable.

"Critics would choose to see Warhol as a social commentator, a painter using the devices of commercial art to expose the mediocrity and exploitiveness of popular culture... It must be understood, though, that Warhol likes best those whose images shine the brightest- better yet, those who are images. Warhol likes stars." 3

Figure 2, Red Elvis, Andy Warhol, 1962

In comparison to Warhol's bold, brash and quite inelegant works, Roy Lichtenstein's are well-finished, and underneath their content offer a sophisticated variant on typical Western modernism. He used comic strips as his main inspiration, although he was also inspired by popular advertising, and his works often had themes of humour and parody in them. His style was typically bold, thick lines, along with the prominence of Ben-Day dots (imitating printing techniques at the time), again inspired by comic strips.
 

Figure 3, Drowning Girl, Roy Lichtenstein, 1963

Lichtenstein wanted his images to look machine made, although deep down he was always a painter, and unlike Warhol, he almost never used or took photography as a base for his work. His works always retained a sense of traditional methods, no matter how hard he tried to make them look machine made. He preferred to use hand-drawn figures from anonymous artists that held no particular interest or value to them.

"Tension is created between the look of an anonymous drawing style and the knowledge that an individual artist did actually execute a commercial image. A remainder of the human hand remains inherent to the drawing process itself, however impersonal it may seem." 4

List of Illustrations

Figure 1 Two Dollar Bills (Front and Rear), Andy Warhol, 1962, OSTERWOLD, T. Pop Art, Taschen, 2003, p.132
Figure 2 Red Elvis, Andy Warhol, 1962, RATCLIFF, C. Warhol, Cross River Press, 1983, p.28
Figure 3 Drowning Girl, Roy Lichtenstein, 1963, HENDRICKSON, J. Lichtenstein, Taschen, 1993, p. 31

References

[1] OSTERWOLD, T. Pop Art, p. 136
[2] RATCLIFF, C. Warhol, p.26
[3] RATCLIFF, C. Warhol, p.28
[4] HENDRICKSON, J. Lichtenstein, p.25

Bibliography

HENDRICKSON, J. Lichtenstin, (1993), Taschen. London
OSTERWOLD, T. Pop Art, (2003), Taschen, London
RATCLIFF, C. Warhol, (1983), Cross River Press

The 1940s and 1950s

Task

Research illustration, graphics and posters in the second World War.

In this research task I am focusing on the posters and graphics in Britain during WWII. I chose the posters in Britain specifically because I always loved the 'Dig For Victory' slogan and its meaning, especially at school when learning about the War and England during that time.

In the WWII propoganda posters throughout Britan, the general message was that 'work will bring victory'. People were encouraged to grow their own foodstuffs and be careful of their use of rationing, due to limited trading. There was also a lot of gender-specific posters, aimed at women who remained at home, encouraging them to work in the fields or factories (in the place of men), and to be content sending their children away for evacuation during the Blitz.

Figure 1, Dig For Victory, Unknown, 1941

This poster became the signature of the 'Dig for Victory' movement throughout the War, and after this initial use, the slogan was used in many other poster formats during the War. The hugely bold sanserif text is really in your face and reads much like the title of an epic movie. The vibrant red colour combined with the black and white contrast of the photograph is eye-catching and would have added to the attractiveness of the poster, capable of capturing the nation's eye perfectly.

"The importance of self-sufficiency was emphasised- with a note of wry humour- in bestowing epic grandeur to the mundane task of kitchen gardening." 1

Figure 1, Grow Your own Food, Abram Games, 1942

This was another poster reinforcing home cultivation of crops and other foods. The symbolism in this poster is strong, with the obvious trowel and shovel transforming into a knife and fork at the table end, showing the importance of putting your own food on your own table. Again the type is large and bold, contrasting with the lighter coloured background. This, again, would have caught people's eye and was an effective way of advertising.

Figure 3, Women of Britain Come into the Factories, Philip Zec, 1941

When conscription took place in Britain, there were hardly any men available to fill the spaces in the workplace they previously held. Thus, women were the country's port of call, and so a new perspective on advertising around women was needed. The above poster encouraging women to seek work in factories was a far cry from previous propoganda put out by the government- posters about women were usually extremely sexist and sterotypical, especially in 'anti-gossip material' burnished with the phrase 'careless talk costs lives'. In these posters, women were usually the focus of the image, adhering to the stereotype that all women are silly gossips and should be told repeatedly to 'keep mum'. 

"The National Service Act in December 1941- obliging all unmarried women under 30 to join the forces or enter war production- also demanded fresh perspectives in British propoganda. The hackneyed depictions of feminine vulnerability of earlier posters gave way to recruiting images of women exhibiting traditonally masculine virtues of confidence and determination, befitting the male domains they were entering." 2

A constant feature throughout most of the posters and propoganda of this time is the prominence of the text. Wether sanserif or serif, the text is almost always in an obvious, eye catching position, of a solid, contrasting colour and featuring powerful language relating to the content.

List of Illustrations

Figure 1 Dig For Victory, Unknown, 1941, SLOCOMBE, R. British Posters of the Second World War, Imperial War Museum, 2012, p.34
Figure 2 Grow Your own Food, Abram Games, 1942, SLOCOMBE, R. British Posters of the Second World War, Imperial War Museum, 2012, p.37
Figure 3 Women of Britain Come into the Factories, Philip Zec, 1941, SLOCOMBE, R. British Posters of the Second World War, Imperial War Museum, 2012, p.16

References

[1] SLOCOMBE, R. British Posters of the Second World War, p.34
[2] SLOCOMBE, R. British Posters of the Second World War, p.16

Bibliography

SLOCOMBE, R. British Posters of the Second World War, (2012), Imperial War Museum

1930s

Task

Analyse three key Art Deco posters looking at political or commercial context and stylistic influences of illustration or typography. 

The 1930's in the USA were a decade of glamour and high class. However it was also a time of extreme economic difficulty after the Wall Street Crash and the beginning of the Great Depression.

Art Deco was influenced by a number of things- cubism and constructivism were two sources, along with Bauhaus modernism and even ancient Egyptian and Aztec designs. Art Deco featured powerful imagery and strikingly bold lines and colour, combined with a penchant for the masculine power of new machinery and tecnhology.

"The Art Deco poster artist took inspiration from many of the movements in avant-garde painting of the early years of the century. Cubism and Futurism, in particular, provided powerful new advertising tools. Cubism added fragmentation; abstraction and overlapping images and colour. Futurism contributed the new century's preoccupation with speed and power, translated brilliantly by poster artists into potent images of the era's new giant oceanliners and express locomotives." 1

 Advertisement for transport, especially transatlantic travel, was huge. In the Art Nouveau era, poster advertisements tended to be limited to theatre and music shows, however this all changed with the emergence of new up-and-coming graphic designers such as Cassandre, one of the biggest artists of the time. He produced a number of iconic travel posters, an embodiment of the Art Deco movement.

Figure 1, Normandie Poster, Cassandre, 1935

The above poster for the Normandie liner was one of the most iconic of all Art Deco posters. New and improved manufacturing techniques created a huge surplus of products which meant that design became an important medium to persuade consumers to buy or use a particular product. Designs were simplified, which is obvious in the Normandie poster in that its simple symmetry is a powerul symbol. A limited range of colours are used and the type is bold and masculine, speaking volumes about the immense power of this new transatlantic liner, the fastest ship of the day, a French product that was an Art Deco tour de force in itself due to the pure artistic interior design by Jean Dunand, one of the most gifted interior designers of the time.

"Sharp linear compositions, floating on flat areas of background colour, quickly drew the eye. Other gimmicks helped to gain attention, such as aerial and diagonal perspectives. New sanserif type faces streamlined the message." 2

This is clearly seen in the Normandie poster, and in many others of Cassandre's advertising work. The wealth and luxury of the time lent itself to the travel industry, which is why the advertisement of travel was so popular and important.

Figure 2, Nord Express, Cassandre, 1927

Above is an earlier travel advertisement poster by Cassandre for the Nord Express, a new transcontinental railway. Again it shows the same power and elegance of the Normandie poster, and shows the diagonal perspective typical of Art Deco poster design at the time. Cassandre used a sleek sanserif type, another modern element of design, and the poster emphasised the importance of this new train which was the pride of its company.

"As with most regional railway companies, its star locomotive, in this case the Nord Express, was the flagship for the company, emphasizing its speed and transcontinental credentials." 3

Another area where graphic and poster design was evolving was in fashion. Vogue magazine began in the late nineteenth century but it was due to the publisher Condé Nast that it became one of the most read fashion journals both in Europe and America.

Figure 3, The Wedding March, cover of Vogue, March 1929, Georges Lepape

Here in the March 1929 edition of Vogue magazine, there are all the elements of high fashion and extreme wealth displayed in the design. The colours of red and gold are historically regarded as royal colours, signifying prosperity and regality along with elegance and, again, wealth. The symmetrical composition of the design is also a staple of the graphic design in this era, a powerful, bold layout exuding fashion and fortune. Even in the Great Depression Vogue was popular, with sales rising as the public sought to escape their own dismal realities.

"Even though America and Europe were entering the period known as the Great Depression, sales of Vogue increased dramatically as people sought refuge from the traumas of their own existence, finding solace in fashion and celebrity." 4

List of Illustrations

Figure 1 Normandie Poster, Cassandre, 1935, ROBINSON, M. & ORMISTON, R. Art Deco: The Golden Age of Graphic Art and Illustration, 2013, Flame Tree Publishing, p.145
Figure 2 Nord Express Poster, Cassandre, 1927, ROBINSON, M. & ORMISTON, R. Art Deco: The Golden Age of Graphic Art and Illustration, 2013, Flame Tree Publishing, p.140
Figure 3 The Wedding March, Georges Lepape, Vogue, March 1929, ROBINSON, M. & ORMISTON, R. Art Deco: The Golden Age of Graphic Art and Illustration, 2013, Flame Tree Publishing, p.141

References

[1] DUNCAN, A. Art Deco, p.p. 150-151
[2] DUNCAN, A. Art Deco, p. 150
[3] ROBINSON, M. & ORMISTON, R. Art Deco: The Golden Age of Graphics and Illustration, p. 141
[4] ROBINSON, M. & ORMISTON, R. Art Deco: The Golden Age of Graphics and Illustration, p. 126

Bibliography

DUNCAN, A. Art Deco, (1988), Thames and Hudson, London
ROBINSON, M. & ORMISTON, R. Art Deco: The Golden Age of Graphics and Illustration, (2013), Flame Tree Publishing, London

1920's Europe and Russia

Task

Research surrealism and sexuality in 1920's art, photography and film.

After the Dada art following the first World War, realism went out the window. The movement started in Paris (the center of Surrealism) and from the 1920's it spread across the globe.

The art of surrealism featured a lot of sexual connotations, with basic human fears, motivations and instincts being the focus. These emotions and desires were almost animalistic and these were the parts of the brain these artists were trying to access.

"Eroticism is the force majeure that drives Surrealism. It is the great liberating power. It is always present, wether overt of hidden- a constant sourse of disturbance..." 1

One of the most well-known and popular artists of the surrealist art movement was Salvador Dali, a Spanish artist born in 1904. Towards the late 1920s Dali had fully embraced Surrealism and his works were focused on his own sexual fears and eroticism.

Figure 1, The Great Masturbator, Salavador Dali, 1929

This was one of Dali's earliest surrealist paintings. It was an expression of his anxiety, again related to his sexual fears, especially of women and their sexuality.

"Dalí himself described it as "the expression of my heterosexual anxiety". In 1929 he was still a virgin, inhibited by deep-seated fears of female sexuality and anal obsessions." 2

Dali also made a film along with director Luis Bunuel, Un Chien Andalou (An Andalusian Dog). It was a hit when released, being shown for over 8 months, and uses dream logic and a disjointed timeline to further the surreal experience. It was based on supressed human emotions, featuring scenes from dreams of Dali and Bunuel, including a moon sliced through by a cloud 'like an eye with a razor'.

Figure 2, A still from Un Chien  Andalou showing a woman's eye being sliced open.

One of the biggest surrealist photohraphers of the time was Man Ray, who was introduced to surrealism by artists of the Dada such as Marcel Duchamp and Jean Cocteau. The women in his life were usually the subjects in his work, and he showed them off to the world whereas most artists would rather have kept their sexual partners to themselves.

Figure 3, Violon d'Ingres, Man Ray, 1924

In Paris Man Ray met one of his most prominent muses, Kiki de Montparnasse, and the images she inspired him to create were possibly the most openly erotic ever produced. Violon d'Ingres is probably the most famous, and the title is a mischievous play on words, with the 'f' shaped violin holes adding the famous final touch.

"The woman's back is in itself an instrument, and one that the skilled player (the lover) can coax into life with his (or her) hands. ... Ray formed a link between "two distant realities", a game the Surrealists loves to play. The suggestive title implies that, by transforming his model into an object, Kiki has become a toy or plaything for Man Ray..." 3

This is again an example of the prominent sexual themes in Surrealism, prevalent throughout both the photography and art of the movement, while the film produced in this era had obvious themes in the human subconcious and dream logic.

List of Illustrations

Figure 1 The Great Masturbator, Salavador Dali, 1929, HARRIS, N. The Life and Works of Dali, Parragon, 2002, p. 15
Figure 2 Un Chien Andalou, Salvador Dali & Luis Bunuel, 1929, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Un_Chien_Andalou , 21/02/14
Figure 3 Violon d'Ingres, Man Ray, 1924, Man Ray, Grange Books, 2005, p.15

References

[1] BOUQUERET, C. Surrealist Photography, p. 4
[2] HARRIS, N. The Life and Works of Dali, p. 15
[3] Not Stated, Man Ray, p. 27

Bibliography

BOUQUERET, C. Surrealist Photography, (2007) Thames and Hudson, London
HARRIS, N. The Life and Works of Dali, (2002) Parragon Publishing, London
Not Stated, Man Ray, (2005) Grange Books, London

1900-1920

Task

Research Art of the First World War and its Aftermath

In this research post I will be focusing on the Cubist works of Picasso and Dadaism after the Great War.

The turn of the century was a celebration for all but was shortly followed by the First World War. WWI came about after a series of political clashes between the Great Powers, including England, Germany, France, Russia, Italy and Austria-Hungary.

Traditional methods of painting in this time changed; artists began to change their attitudes and beliefs towards their art, and instead of the previously very realist artistic style, more abtract images and conceptual methods began to take form, and 'Modern Art' was born.

Figure 1, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, 1907, Pablo Picasso

This early painting of Picasso's was one of his most important and revolutionary images. Influenced heavily by Iberian art and African masks and culture, this painting of 5 women from a brothel launched an artistic protest against the Western visual norm.

"Western visual conventions- accurate perspective and a single viewpoint- are violated, for example in the seated woman on the right, seen simultaneously full-face and from behind. The faces of the central figures reflect Picasso's interest in ancient Iberian art; the rest have mask-heads directly inspired by the African sculptures which Picasso has seen in Paris's Musée de l'Homme." 1

This painting was also a suggestion of early cubism. The forms have almost faceted surfaces, and there is a geometric emphasis throughout the piece with lots of sharp angles and hard, straight lines.

Picasso's Cubism focused mainly on figure paintings, although he also did sculptures and landscape studies too. A lot of his figure work was almost monochromatic, with dark tones used such as greys and blacks with burgundy and brown, as seen in the next two figures.

Figure 2, Portrait of Ambroise Vollard, 1909-10, Pablo Picasso

Figure 3, Woman in an Armchair, 1910, Pablo Picasso

Cubism during the War was different. It evolved into Futurism, a hard edged movement which emphasised and glorified the future as it was seen at the time, focusing on contemporary concepts such as extreme speed and technology, cars and aeroplanes and industrial cities.

Figure 4, Abstract Speed and Sound, 1913-14, Giacomo Balla

As you can see, there are still relations between this Futurist piece and Picasso's Cubism. There are still many geometric lines and angles encorporated in the piece, meaning to describe the speed and power of a moving automobile, although there are more adventurous colours involved in this piece.

Dada 'art' was motivated by a series of psychological and artistic themes following the First World War, and involved painting, sculpture, literature, performing arts and much much more. Dada had no real reason or logic to it and was supposed to be an 'anti-art' movement.

Marcel Duchamp was an artist who tried to remain unaffiliated with the Dada movement but was one of the biggest contributors to conceptual art and 'freeing of the mind' after the Great War.

"Its central figure, Marcel Duchamp, had little use for the label, although his scandalous readymade urinal and his habit of cross-dressing as Rrose Sélavy have become the key examples of dada provocation." 2

List of Illustrations

Figure 1 Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, 1907, Pablo Picasso, HARRIS, N. The Life and Works of Picasso, 2002, p. 21
Figure 2 Portrait of Ambroise Vollard, 1909-10, Pablo Picasso, HARRIS, N. The Life and Works of Picasso, 2002, p. 28
Figure 3 Woman in an Armchair, 1910, Pablo Picasso, COX, N. Cubism, 2000, p. 12
Figure 4 Abstract Speed and Sound, 1913-14, Giacomo Balla, http://www.ranker.com/list/futurism-paintings/reference, 20/02/14

References

[1] HARRIS, N. The Life and Works of Picasso, p. 21
[2] KUENZLI, R. DADA, p. 22

Bibliography

COX, N. Cubism, (2002), Phaidon Press Limited, London
HARRIS, N. The Life and Works of Picasso, (2002), Parragon Books, London
KUENZLI, R. DADA, (2006), Phaidon Press Limited, London

Late 19th Century

Task:

Research examples of Art Nouveau in illustration and graphics.

Art Nouveau originated in France, and means 'New Art'. In this research task I will concentrate on the commercial works of Alphonse Mucha, who is probably the most well-known artist of this movement, having designed hundreds of posters and advertisements as well as furniture and jewelery designs.

Figure 1, Gismonda poster, Mucha 1898

This poster was created for Sarah Bernhardt, a famous theatre actress at the time, and was the image that launched Mucha to fame. It was so different to anything else in that era that at first it was coined a disaster by the printers, who proclaimed no-one would ever like it. However when presented to Sarah, she immediately loved it.

"The actress was examining the poster which she had hung on the wall. She turned around and kissed him, initiating a collaboration which lasted for six years.                              Alphonse Mucha was catapulted into the international art world almost overnight. Witnesses to his success were all astonished by the unusual chain of events that had permitted an obscure graphic artist- known before to only a few professionals- to receive the sublime kiss of recognition in Sarah's dressing room." 1

The poster was greeted by the public with just as much enthusiasm as Sarah and she personified the style- the style swept through Europe, not only in graphic form but in interior decor and even architecture. The style had roots in a number of influences, ranging from Japonisme and oriental art to the elaborate French Rococo.

Figure 2, The Geisha Itsutomi, Eishi

This is an example of typical Japonisme. Note the similarities between the styles- especially in regards to the asymmetry of the piece and the long flowing dress the woman is wearing. Japanese woodblock printing also influenced the Art Nouveau style, in the form of solid contoured lines and gradient backgrounds. Two of the most popular and famous Japanese woodblock artists were Hokusai and Hiroshige. 

Figure 3, The Great Wave off Kanagawa, Hokusai

The Great Wave off Kanagawa by Hokusai is possibly one of Japan's most famous artworks. When compared with Mucha's illustration poster La Trappistine, you can see the direct influence in the form of the gradiented background and smooth flowing lines, along with the curvature of the lines and their precise purposefullness. 

Figure 4, La Trappistine, Mucha, 1897

Art Nouveau also went under another name for a while- 'Le Style Mucha'. This was because Mucha was the embodiment of the style- his works became so famous and widespread he was THE artist to commission for Art Nouveau.

One of the main features of Art Nouveau, or Le Style Mucha, was the prominent features of flowers, jewels and other decorative objects in the posters and designs. The illustrations also usually featured a frame of some sort, wether it be circular or rectangular or a swirling motif around the image. The colours used were usually soft pastel tones, a far cry from the bright and gaudy primary colours used elsewhere in this period.  

"There was hardly any text and a profusion of pale colours; it was the exact opposite of current poster art. The elongated shape of the poster and pastel colours - pale whites, cream and beige with subtle mauves, reds, and greens - were so at odds with the current trend of square-shape or landscape posters in bright primary colours." 2

List of Illustrations

Figure 1 Gismonda poster, Mucha, 1898, ELLRIDGE, A. Mucha: The Triumph of Art Nouveau, Paris, 2001, p. 44

Figure 2 The Geisha Itsutomi, Selected Geisha of the Gay Quarter, Eishi, http://lifestyle.inquirer.net/117001/utamaro-and-his-six-women 19/02/14

Figure 3 The Great Wave off Kanagawa, Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji, Hokusai, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Great_Wave_off_Kanagawa.jpg 19/02/14

Figure 4 La Trappistine, Mucha, 1897, ORMISTON, R. Alphonse Mucha: Masterworks, 2007, p. 53

References

[1] ELLRIDGE, A. Mucha: The Triumph of Art Nouveau, p. 44

[2] ORMISTON, R. Alphonse Mucha: Masterworks, p. 94

Bibliography

ELLRIDGE, A. Mucha: The Triumph of Art Nouveau, (2001) Terrail, Paris
ORMISTON, R. Alphonse Mucha: Masterworks, (2007) Flame Tree Publishing, London

The 19th Century

Task:

Research the use of photography to document war and conflict in the 19th Century.

In this task I will be researching the Crimean War and the American Civil War. The Crimean War was the first war to be documented through photography, and lasted from 1853 to 1856 between the Russian Empire and the French/ British alliance. Although Roger Fenton is considered the first official war photographer, the actual first war photographer known by name was a surgeon in the infantry.

"The first war photographer known by name was an amateur: John MacCosh, a British surgeon with the Bengal infantry." 1

 However although Fenton was not the first, he was certainly one of the most prominent. He shot over 360 photographs during his stay in the Crimea, and was financed and commissioned by a firm of Manchester publishers hoping to exploit the pictures commercially.

By 1854 Fenton was well known as an artist after devoting his time to professional photography and was known for his landscape and portrait photography. The technology at the time and the way photographs were devloped meant that a photographer would need to to transport his processing equipment where ever he went.

"However, the wet-plate method had one major inconvenience: the glass plate for the negative had to be sensitized immediately before exposure and developed immediately after. For optimum quality the plate had to be damp during exposire and if it dried before development had taken place the clarity was also impaired. This meant that a photographer had to transport a complete darkroom whenever he went out to take pictures." 2

Figure 1, The Artist's Van, Roger Fenton

 However because of this huge, bulky carriage, Fenton could not document any real battle scenes- and as well because his exposure times were long, almost all of his photographs were posed.

"His exposures had to last between 3 and 20 seconds, even in the best summer light- long enough to blur the slightest movement. Thus, Fenton had to pose virtually every shot." 3

Figure 2, Shadow of the Valley of Death, 1854, Roger Fenton

This image, Shadow of the Valley of Death, is perhaps one of the most recognised of Fenton's photographs from the Crimean war. It shows the cannonballs strewn across the valley, and apparently sums up the horror and ravages of the war within this one image.

The American Civil War was fought from 1861-1865 and was documented in full thanks to the efforts of Mathew B. Brady and his team. This time around there was no careful posing of photographs or nicely presented, censored shots. Brady exposed the war in full with over twenty other photographers which he organised throughout the war.

Figure 3, Collecting the remains of the dead at Cold Harbor, American Civil War, Mathew B. Brady

 This kind of photograph would never have been taken in the Crimean war. Photos like this were very very real, hard hitting and shocking to the American public.

"Brady and his men photographed everything- bridges, bivouacs, dead and wounded, guns and fortifications, ruined cities, hospitals and prisoner-of-war camps, as well as many portraits of soldiers and generals alike." 4

Unfortunately the war photographs were still not as popular as artist's renditions of epic battles in newspapers of the time, again because of the technological limitations of the camera equipment and the artists inability to get to the front line as much as they would have liked. The war photographs looked too dead and still, with no animation or character to them, and so they remained unpopular in mass culture until WWII.

"Looking at issues of magazines and journals of that period, one finds that the photographs indeed look tame and dull, even lifeless, in comparison with the artists' versions. Only in the Second World War did the photographer start to produce sufficiently powerful and dramatic pictures to make the artist-illustrator obsolete." 5

List of Illustrations

Figure 1 The Artists Van, Roger Fenton, HANNAVY, J. Roger Fenton, The Gordon Fraser Gallery Ltd, 1975 p. 51
Figure 2 Shadow of the Valley of Death, 1854, Roger Fenton, LEWINSKI, J. The Camera at War, Chartwell Books INC, 1986, p. 38
Figure 3 Collecting the remains of the dead at Cold Harbor, Mathew B. Brady LEWINSKI, J. The Camera at War, Chartwell Books INC, 1986, p. 48

References

[1] LEWINSKI, J. The Camera at War, p. 37
[2] LEWINSKI, J. The Camera at War, p. 39
[3] LEWINSKI, J. The Camera at War, p. 39
[4] LEWINSKI, J. The Camera at War, p. 44

Bibliography

HAVVANY, J. Roger Fenton, (1975) The Gordon Fraser Gallery Ltd.
LEWINSKY, J. The Camera at War, (1987) Book Sales, London

17th and 18th Centuries

Task:

Compare paintings of Vermeer and Rembrandt, especially their methods of lighting subjects.

Vermeer and Rembrandt are some of the Netherland's most esteemed artists, with their work being produced at the peak of the Golden Age, a time when Holland achieved unparalleled economic, social and political growth. At this time, Dutch painting possessed a sharpness and realism unrecognised in art before, a complete turnaround from the religious and fantastical themes of the Renaissance.

"Never before had a group of artists looked at the physical world around them with such clarity and set down their observations with such fidelity. Turning away from the religious, mythological and allegorical subjects that had been the themes of Renaissance art, they portrayed what they saw around them, with great artistry but without histrionics or affectation." 1

The lighting in both Vermeer and Rembrandt paintings are quite similar- Vermeer famously painted in the same studio throughout his whole career, thus casting a side-light on the scenes and models he painted. Rembrandt also lit his subjects with a side light although much more harshly, casting harder shadows and starker contrasts than Vermeer's.

"... in many 17th Century paintings a battle was waged between light and dark: shadows were overemphasised to make the light areas seem lighter. This approach was used by Rembrandt, who often gave strength to his bright centers by plunging the surroundings into darkness." 2

Figure 1, The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Tulp, 1632, Rembrandt

 These qualities in Rembrandt's work are clearly evidenced in the painting The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Tulp. Much of the background is shrouded in darkness and the complexions of the men and cadaver are in bright contrast to this, illuminating the scene. The light source appears to be coming from the upper left hand side of the painting, thus allowing the light to shine brightly in particular on the faces of the men.

It is also important to note that Rembrandt was a particular master of expressions, producing many small etchings and drawings of his own face contorted into peculiar shapes and forms.

"Often, like an actor practising before a mirror, he sought simply to increase his mastery of facial expression... However, as Rembrandt aged and experienced the reality of emtion instead of merely studying its surface signs, he used his face to convey a deeper meaning, pitilessly portraying the slow ruin of his own flesh, reflecting the tides of skepticism and courage, melancholy and calm that coursed through him." 3

Figure 2, Bathsheba, 1654, Rembrandt

Figure 3, Small etchings of expressions, 1630, Rembrandt

In the painting Bathsheba by Rembrandt, you can again see the obvious contrast between light and dark, but also the pondering expression of the woman and the slight melancholy tilt of her head, showing Rembrandt's proficiency at capturing expressions and emotion. The small etchings of himself greatly helped his understanding of expression and this is clearly seen within these self portraits.

Figure 4, Lady Reading a Letter with an Open Window, 1658, Vermeer

Lady Reading a Letter is a classic example of Vermeer's soft, luminescent lighting technique. The light pours in from the window of the left, casting softer shadows than in Rembrandt's work. He transformed the depth of his paintings by using deeper tones of colour to suggest shadow, rather than painting brown or black over the top as other contemporaries of the time would. Each tone in the shadow was slightly different from the last, accounting for the subtle differences in the colour of every surface and capturing the brilliance of natural daylight.

"The shadows themselves are always variations of colour- never black or just brown. Vermeer knew that all shadows have colours, just as he understood that white light is never really white... although apparently white, each nuance of wall texture, each subtle change of light intensity and tone has been rendered by almost innumerable variations of colour- all the colours, in fact, that do exist in the colour white." 4

List of Illustrations

Figure 1 The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Tulp, Rembrandt van Rijn, 1632, WALLACE, R. The World of Rembrandt, 1606 - 1669, Time-Life Books, 1968, p. 75
Figure 2 Bathsheba, Rembrandt van Rijn, 1654, WALLACE, R. The World of Rembrandt, 1606 - 1669, Time-Life Books, 1968, p. 172
Figure 3 Small etchings of expressions, Rembrandt van Rijn, 1630, WALLACE, R. The World of Rembrandt, 1606 - 1669, Time-Life Books, 1968, p. 8
Figure 4, Lady Reading a Letter with an Open Window, Johannes Vermeer, 1658, BUGLER, C. Dutch Painting, Phaidon Press Limited, 1979, p. 52

References

[1] KONINGSBERGER, H. The World of Vermeer, 1632 - 1675, p. 9
[2] KONINGSBERGER, H. The World of Vermeer, 1632 - 1675, p. 126
[3] WALLACE, R. The World of Rembrandt, 1606 - 1669, p. 7
[4] KONINGSBERGER, H. The World of Vermeer, 1632 - 1675, p. 127

Bibliography

BUGLER, C. Dutch Painting, (1979), Phaidon Press Limited. London
KONINGSBERGER, H. The World of Vermeer, 1632 - 1675, (1967), Time-Life Books, London
WALLACE, R. The World of Rembrandt, 1606 - 1669, (1968), Time-Life Books, London

The Renaissance in Europe

Task:

Research an artist from the Renaissance in Europe.

The artist I chose to focus my research on in this topic is Hieronymus Bosch.

Bosch's life is a bit ambigious because there were no clear records of his birth, although his death was confirmed in 1516 in a registry of names from his hometown of Hertogenbosch, a small town near the Dutch/ German border. However he is assumed to have been born around 1450 because of a portrait by an anonymous artist in red and black chalk.

"His birth date was not found, but because his portrait, which was discovered in the Arras Codex, showed a man of about sixty, his birth was assumed to have been around 1450. There are a few references to Bosch between these dates in the archives of the Brotherhood of Our Lady's at Hertogenbosch." 1

Figure 1, Red and black chalk portrait of Bosch

His paintings throughout his life were oddities of the period as they focused around themes of death, apocalypse and mortal sin. The works were also often in triptych format, a series of three paintings together to make one whole. This made it easier to tell the 'story' of his paintings, or rather separate the different elements of the images such as Paradise, The Garden and Hell in his painting 'The Garden of Earthly Delights'.

Figure 2, The Garden of Earthly Delights, Hieronymus Bosch, 1503-1504

 Bosch's paintings also featured many surreal elements, and monsters and people that were personifications of evil and/or sin, and would paint them with such conviction and skill it was possible to believe in them. This in turn influenced many future artists, especially ones such as Salvador Dali within the 20th century.

"He would make his creatures, their activities, and their environments as wierd and unwordly as possible, yet, the painter would make these things believeable by rendering them with all of the technical mastery an artist would ordinarily use to produce the illusion of the natural world." 2

List of Illustrations

Figure 1 Hieronymus Bosch, Anonymous, unknown, Grange Books, 2005, p. 18
Figure 2 The Garden of Earthly Delights, Hieronymus Bosch, 1503-1504, Grange Books, 2005, p. 26

References

[1] Not Stated, Hieronymus Bosch, Grange Books, 2005, p. 18
[2] Not Stated, Hieronymus Bosch, Grange Books, 2005, p.72

Bibliography

Not Stated, Hieronymus Bosch, (2005), Grange Books, London

The Medieval Times: Early Christian Art

Task:

Analyse at least two examples of early Christian art using three or more academic sources.

For this task I have chosen to research one image from the Lindisfarne Gospels and one from the Book of Kells. In the Lindisfarne Gospels I especially liked the carpet pages- huge illustrations of complicated knotwork for pure decoration, and from the Book of Kells I will be looking at the the diverse use of colour in the illustrated pages.

Figure 1, Carpet Page, Lindisfarne Gospels

 The Lindisfarne Gospels originated from Northumbria in England around 700AD, and is considered perhaps the most beautiful of Hibernian art.   
                               
 In the carpet pages of the Lindisfarne Gospels the design incorporates many features from different cultures around the world, fused into one symmetrical but abstract whole. Influences from Celtic knotwork are seen on the side decorations and the curling designs, when looked at closely, are different animals interwoven with each other in such a way they are eventually no longer discernable from each other.

"Moreover, the various elements of the design (wether originally Irish, East Mediterranean or Nordic) are here amalgamated into a coherent and symmetrical whole and, as a masterpiece of abstract art remains, in the present writer's view, unsurpassed." 1

 "Early medieval art is characterised by unifying decorative ornament made from wild creatures, fluid and flowing, vigorous and animated." 2

While the Lindisfarne Gospels are considered one of the most beautiful works of early Christian art, the Book of Kells is the most colourful.

Figure 2, Gospel of John, Book of Kells

As you can see here, this illustration is a lot more wildly coloured, with much louder tones being used. What is especially noticeable is also the wide variety of colours- while in the carpet page of the Gospels a fairly straightforward colour scheme of gold, red and blue, the Book of Kells uses everything from green, purple, gold, blue and a rich burgundy.

"Less refined than the Lindisfarne Gospels, the Book of Kells is almost overwhelming in its colourful elaboration... The range of colours used is dazzling..." 3

"In these portraits, Gospel scenes, full pages of ornament and introductory pages of decoration, the artist takes over with his balanced mixture of invention and discipline. His range of colours is considerable. It includes the frequent use of different shades of mauve, several shades of yellow, blue, brown, green and red." 4

Figure 3, Madonna and Child, Book of Kells

It is also interesting to note that the Madonna is not particularly anatomically correct. The legs have been drawn in a very stylised fashion and her breasts are long and almost cylindrical.

 "Against a flat background with floating figures, doll-like Mary and Jesus are treated as patterns of lines. The curvilinear folds of Mary's drapery form a decorative design, the transparent fabric revealing the non-anatomical shape of her legs and pendulous breasts." 5

List of Illustrations

Figure 1 Carpet Page, Lindisfarne Gospels, 700AD, GOUGH, M. The Origins of Christian Art, Thames and Hudson, p. 190
Figure 2 Gospel of John, Book of Kells, GOUGH, M. The Origins of Christian Art, Thames and Hudson, p. 194
Figure 3 Madonna and Child, Book of Kells, BENTON, J. R. Art of the Middle Ages, Thames and Hudson, p. 40

References

[1] GOUGH, M. The Origins of Christian Art, p. 191
[2] BENTON, J. R. Art of the Middle Ages, p. 41
[3] GOUGH, M. The Origins of Christian Art, p. 194
[4] ARNOLD, B. A Concise History of Irish Art, p. 38
[5] BENTON, J. R. Art of the Middle Ages, p. 9

Bibliography

ARNOLD, B. A Concise History of Irish Art, (1969), Thames and Hudson, London
BENTON, J. R. Art of the Middle Ages, (2002), Thames and Hudson, London
GOUGH, M. The Origins of Christian Art, (1973), Thames and Hudson, London

The Ancient World: Egypt

Task: 

Research examples of visual communication, especially relating to religious and spiritual beliefs and how they were expressed during this time. 

For this task I have chosen to research the visual culture of the Ancient Egyptians. I find it a very fascinating subject in regards to the spiritual beliefs of the culture- especially relating to the 'Weighing of the Heart' ritual, usually illustrated in the 'Book of the Dead' which was painted for each deceased person as a way to provide the knowledge for them to find their way through the trials presented to them on their journey to the afterlife.

Instead the decoration concentrates on the passage into the next world, drawing extensively on the Book of the Dead, a body of funerary texts and accompanying illustrations... Their function was to provide the deceased with the knowledge necessary to reach the next world safely. Frequent scenes include the funeral procession and rites before the tomb, the dangerous journey into the underworld through the gates that guard it, the weighing of the heart and subsequent presentation to Osiris, and life in the next world. 1

Figure 1

Figure 1 reiterates this point because it clearly shows an example of the 'Weighing of the Heart' ritual in the Hunfer Book of the Dead. The god Anubis (the jackal) leads the deceased to the scales, where his heart is weighed. Thoth (the ibis) records the result, and Horus the falcon god leads Hunfer to Osiris (enthroned), who is the funerary god of the afterlife and can allow him to pass onto Paradise.

The spritual beliefs of the Egyptians were very simply portrayed on the walls of the tombs, depicted in a literal sense, and visually communicating their religion in regards to the afterlife. 

List of Illustrations

Figure 1 The Weighing of the Heart, McDERMOTT, B. Decoding Egyptian Heiroglyphs: How to Read the Secret Language of the Pharoahs, 2001, p.p. 88-89

References

[1] ROBINS, G. The Art of Ancient Egypt, p. 182

Bibliography

McDERMOTT, B. Decoding Egyptian Heiroglyphs: How to Read the Secret Language of the Pharoahs, (2001), Duncan Baird Publishers, London
ROBINS, G. The Art of Ancient Egypt, (1997), British Museum Press, London